Background Developing confident capacity for ethical decision-making is vital in nursing education. However, no tool examines nursing students’ competence in ethical decision-making. Aim This study aimed to develop an Ethical Decision-Making Competence Scale (EDM-CS) to assess ethical care decision-making competencies in nursing students. Participants and research context Original items were obtained by employing a focus group and the Delphi method. A cross-sectional design was used to confirm the items remained on the scale. Additionally, the scale’s reliability and validity were assessed. (...) The EDM-CS was completed by 498 nursing students. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to examine the factor structure based on data from group 1 ( n = 250). A second-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the model’s fitness based on data from group 2 ( n = 248). This study was conducted between August 2022 and July 2023. Ethical considerations The Institutional Review Board of Chung Shan Medical University Hospital approved this study’s design and procedure. Results From the original 34 items, nine were deleted in the EFA. Thus, the EDM-CS had 25 items and a four-factor structure (ethical judgement, ethical sensitivity, ethical motivation, and ethical action), which explained 60.97% of the total variance. A second-order CFA identified a second-order factor termed ‘ethical decision-making competence’ with 18 items (root mean square residual = 0.052). The EDM-CS scores correlated significantly and positively with the scores on the Scale of Protective Factor-24 (r = 0.47, p <.001), which indicated good convergent validity. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the final EDM-CS was 0.90 and ranged from 0.73 to 0.80 for the four subscales. Discussion and conclusion The EDM-CS was validated to fit the data adequately. It can be used to evaluate clinical nursing students’ ethical decision-making abilities and to develop education strategies to improve their ethical care competence. (shrink)

Em sua obra principal, o bispo franciscano Álvaro Pais elenca as principais heresias contra a fé cristã. Reserva uma parte significativa a combater três “erros” de Marsílio de Pádua: as afirnações de que o papa pode ser julgado pelo imperador, que o poder do papa não é superior ao de qualquer presbitero e que, morto o papa, o poder retorna ao imperador. Estuda-se a maneira como tais afirmações são refutadas e conclui-se que Álvaro não dispunha do texto marsiliano, e sim (...) de reportação do mesmo e que repete nessa obra o que já escrevera em outra. (shrink)

Em boa parte do Artigo 68 do Livro Primeiro de seu Estado e Pranto da Igreja, Álvaro Pais, O. Min. (c. 1270-1349) refuta 5 proposições com implicações políticas atribuídas a Marsílio de Pádua (1280-1342). Neste artigo, analisamos a refutação dessas proposições feitas pelo Menorita galego, comparando-as, de um lado, com os textos, efetivamente escritos pelo Médico paduano, que se encontram em sua obra Defensor da Paz (1324) e, de outro, cotejando-o com uma Epistula ad quosdam cardinales, de autoria do mencionado (...) Frade, escrita pelo menos dois anos antes. Desse estudo resultaram as seguintes conclusões: 1 – Frei Álvaro, sem fazer nenhuma alusão, apoiou-se basicamente na mencionada Epistula. 2 – Sob o aspecto doutrinal, essencialmente, não há diferença entre ambos os textos alvarinos. 3 – Nos dois textos, o Franciscano galego não compulsou o Defensor da Paz, tendo utilizado as teses que os censores dessa obra imputaram ao seu autor; em 1327, quando o Papa João XXII condenou-a como herética. PALAVRAS-CHAVE – Álvaro Pais. Marsílio de Pádua. Plenitude do poder. Filosofia política. ABSTRACT In a large part of the Article 68 of the Book one of his Status et Planctus Ecclesiae, Alvarus Pelagius O. Min. (c. 1270-1349) refutes five propositions, having political implications, attributed to Marsilius Patavinus (1280-1342). In this study, we analyze the refutation of these propositions made by Alvarus, comparing, on the one hand, with the texts, really, written by Marsilius, which are in his book entitled Defensor pacis (1324), and on the other hand, quoting Alvarus’ text with the Epistula ad quosdam cardinales, also written by the mentioned Franciscan friar two years before. From this study, resulted the following conclusions: 1 – Without to do any mention in the Article 68, the principal Alvarus’ source was the referred Epistula. 2 – Considering the two texts written by Fr. Alvarus, according the doctrinal aspect, they are essentially equal. 3 – In both texts we could see that Alvarus not had in his hands the Defensor Pacis, having used the thesis which the censors of this book imputed to Marsilius in 1327, when this book was condemned as heretic by the Pope John XXII. KEY WORDS – Alvarus Pelagius. Marsilius of Padua. Plentitude of power. Political philosophy. (shrink)

A hagyományunk egyik kérdése az, hogy az eszményeinknek van-e, és mekkora szerepe az emberi cselekvések terén. Az eszményi európai ember valamilyen, esetleg vitatható, esetleg megalapozhatatlan eszményt követ, de uralja szenvedélyeit, vágyait, érzelmeit és érdekeit. A kereszténység ezt felfokozta az erkölcsi cselekvése terén, míg a felvilágosodás a politikában tette mindenek feletti problémává a politikai tudást és eszményeket. Ezt az intellektualizált cselekvési eszményt azonban rendre kikezdik, és ezek a kihívást jelentő magyarázatok a romantikától a marxizmusig a valós cselekvésekre hivatkoznak, amelyek többé vagy (...) kevésbé eltérnek az eszménytől. Egy nemzedékkel ezelőtt, de még ma is sokak számára a valódi cselekvésmotívum az (osztály)érdek volt, míg a mai wokery a személyes érzéseket tette legitim és bármilyen cselekvést igazoló motívummá, míg az eszményeket az elnyomás eszközeinek tekinti, hiszen az eszményeket követni próbáló ember korlátozza önmagát. A kötet írásai a cselekvés szkeptikus megközelítését sugallják: a cselekvéseknek mindig sokféle motívuma lehet, valamilyen eszmény követésétől kezdve érdekek, szenvedélyek és érzelmek követéséig, és ezekről csak feltételezéseink lehetnek. A tapasztalatunk az, hogy a túlmoralizált politika ugyanúgy kellemetlen világot eredményez, mint az alulmoralizált. (shrink)

Neste estudo, com base nos principais escritos políticos de D. Frei Álvaro Pais O. Min. (c. 1270- c.1350) analisamos sua concepção a respeito da origem ou causa eficiente do poder espiritual e, igualmente, seu pensamento no tocante à finalidade ou causa final do referido poder. Quanto ao primeiro tópico, o Bispo de Silves quer principalmente refutar algumas das teses de Marsílio de Pádua contidas na 2ª Parte do seu Defensor da Paz, completamente opostas à teologia do sacerdócio católico e seus (...) graus hierárquicos e à do Primado Petrino. Para tanto, quase literalmente, haure-se, entre outras fontes, particularmente no De regimine christiano (1301) de Tiago de Viterbo OSA. Com respeito à finalidade do poder sacerdotal, de um lado, Álvaro sustenta a doutrina tradicional da Igreja a seu respeito e, de outro, em conseqüência, como partidário da hierocracia, defende a tese de que na, Societas Christiana, os detentores do poder espiritual, particularmente o Sumo Pontífice, ocupam uma posição mais eminente em relação aos governantes seculares. (shrink)

Eu estava no campinho de futebol da casa dos meus pais, os quero-queros tinham feito ninho e seus três filhotes pequenos estavam aprendendo a comer bicando lá sei eu o quê numa parte mais úmida, onde nas chuvas corria uma fonte. Quando os quero-queros faziam ninho, cessavam todas as peladas. Não havia nem discussão, afinal eles moravam aí antes de chegarem os humanos, o terreno era deles, nós éramos os invasores. Um gato espreitava os filhotes, pronto para dar o bote. (...) Em vez de dar de ombros e dizer “é a lei da natureza”, espantei o gato. (shrink)

Neste estudo, com base nos principais escritos políticos de D. Frei Álvaro Pais O. Min. (c. 1270-c. 1350) analisamos sua concepção a respeito da origem ou causa eficiente do poder espiritual e, igualmente, seu pensamento no tocante à finalidade ou causa final do referido poder. Quanto ao primeiro tópico, o Bispo de Silves quer principalmente refutar algumas das teses de Marsílio de Pádua contidas na 2.ª Parte do seu Defensor da Paz, completamente opostas à teologia do sacerdócio católico e seus (...) graus hierárquicos e à do Primado Petrino. Para tanto, quase literalmente, haure-se, entre outras fontes, particularmente no De regimine christiano (1301) de Tiago de Viterbo OSA. Com respeito à finalidade do poder sacerdotal, de um lado, Álvaro sustenta a doutrina tradicional da Igreja a seu respeito e, de outro, em conseqüência, como partidário da hierocracia, defende a tese de que na, Societas Christiana, os detentores do poder espiritual, particularmente o Sumo Pontífice, ocupam uma posição mais eminente em relação aos governantes seculares. (shrink)

Alexandre Grothendieck foi um dos maiores matemáticos do século 20 e um dos mais atípicos. Nascido na Alemanha a um pai anarquista de origem russa, sua infância foi marcada pela militância política dos seus pais, assim passando por revoluções, guerras e sobrevivência. Descoberto por sua precocidade matemática por Henri Cartan, Grothendieck fez seu doutorado sob orientação de Laurent Schwartz e Jean Dieudonné. As principais contribuições dele são na área da topologia e na geometria algébrica, assim como na teoria das categorias. (...) No final dos anos de 1960, ele se dedicou à militância política e ecológica, organizando a revista Survivre durante três anos. Em 1986, publicou um manuscrito autobiográfico de 1000 páginas, Récoltes et semailles, em que ele descreve sua experiência e sua prática da matemática, assim suas contribuições à comunidade matemática francesa. Pouco comentado na filosofia, as implicações dos seus descobrimentos fora mais recentemente discutidas por Alain Badiou na sua "fenômeno-lógica", em Logiques des mondes e Arkady Plonitsky, Mathgematics, Science and postclassical Theory, pesquisa trata da semelhança entre os aspectos formais da filosofia de Gilles Deleuze e da topologia de Grothendieck. (shrink)

In this study, based in the main political works of D. Fr. Alvarus Pelagius O. Min. (c. 1270- c.1350) we analyze his conception on the origin or efficient cause of the spiritual power and, also, his thought about the finality or final cause of the mentioned power. Referring to the first topic, the Bishop of Silves wants principally refutes some Marsilius of Padua’s thesis contained in the Second Dictio of his Defensor Pacis, completely different of the theology of the catholic (...) priesthood and their hierarchic degrees and the Peter’s Primacy. With this purpose, ad litteram, he bases, between other sources, specially, in James’ of Viterbo OSA De regimine christiano (1301). Concerning the finality of the spiritual power, on the one hand, Alvarus supports the Church’s traditional thought about this matter and, the other hand, by consequence, as member and defender of the hierocratic thought, he defends the thesis according which, in the Societas Christiana, the priests, the bishops and, principally, the Roman Pontiff hold the most important position concerning the secular rulers. (shrink)

Los discursos públicos que circulan sobre las matemáticas y su aprendizaje determinan el modo en que las familias y los alumnos dan sentido a sus experiencias escolares. En Estados Unidos, estos discursos pueden desempeñar un papel importante en el desarrollo de la política educativa pública debido al compromiso de los consejos escolares públicos de escuchar las voces de la comunidad, así como al reciente (aunque no nuevo) aumento de la organización de grupos de padres conservadores bien financiados que trabajan para (...) mantener -y exacerbar- la desigualdad de oportunidades educativas que persiste en este país. En este trabajo analizamos el discurso público en torno al aprendizaje de las matemáticas en una reunión del consejo escolar local de la ciudad de Nueva York. Utilizando herramientas de análisis de la interacción, examinamos el discurso en torno a una propuesta para restablecer la selección basada en exámenes para la admisión en la escuela secundaria. Delineamos dos características clave de los supuestos de "sentido común" en torno al aprendizaje de las matemáticas que circularon en esta reunión -los estudiantes de matemáticas permanecen en una trayectoria de aprendizaje unidimensional, y con diferentes tasas de avance- e investigamos cómo estos supuestos jugaron en la construcción de un mundo figurado de "matemáticas escolarizadas". Argumentamos que las consecuencias que se derivan necesariamente de estos supuestos de sentido común construyen las matemáticas como jerárquicas y fijas, situando a los alumnos en una trayectoria de aprendizaje unidimensional. Por último, situamos este conjunto de supuestos emergentes en el proyecto racial neoliberal y consideramos las formas en que configuran una imaginación particular de la escolarización y las matemáticas bajo el neoliberalismo. (shrink)

Plasminogen activator inhibitor‐1 (PAI‐1) is a physiological inhibitor of urokinase (uPA), a serine protease known to promote cell migration and invasion. Intuitively, increased levels of PAI‐1 should be beneficial in downregulating uPA activity, particularly in cancer. By contrast, in vivo, increased levels of PAI‐1 are associated with a poor prognosis in breast cancer. This phenomenon is termed the “PAI‐1 paradox”. Many factors are responsible for the upregulation of PAI‐1 in the tumor microenvironment. We hypothesize that there is a breast cancer (...) predisposition to a more aggressive stage when PAI‐1 is upregulated as a consequence of Metabolic Syndrome (MetS). MetS exerts a detrimental effect on the breast tumor microenvironment that supports cancer invasion. People with MetS have an increased risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, peripheral vascular disease and hyperinsulinemia. Recently, MetS has also been identified as a risk factor for breast cancer. We hypothesize the existence of the “PAI‐1 cycle”. Sustained by MetS, adipocytokines alter PAI‐1 expression to promote angiogenesis, tumor‐cell migration and procoagulant microparticle formation from endothelial cells, which generates thrombin and further propagates PAI‐1 synthesis. All of these factors culminate in a chemotherapy‐resistant breast tumor microenvironment. The PAI‐1 cycle may partly explain the PAI‐1 paradox. In this hypothesis paper, we will discuss further how MetS upregulates PAI‐1 and how an increased level of PAI‐1 can be linked to a poor prognosis. BioEssays 29:1029–1038, 2007. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

Las nuevas formas de participación política en las cuales las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación habilitan el desarrollo de novedosas dinámicas de intervención por parte de la ciudadanía, es el tema central de la obra La reconfiguración de la democracia: el laboratorio político español. El presente texto busca, por un lado, realizar una reflexión filosófica crítica en torno a la realidad política española vivida entre los años 2009 y 2015 en los que el panorama y la esfera política (...) se encontraban en un momento activo y complejo. Por otro lado, pretende llevar a cabo una aproximación de carácter más analítico a dicha realidad política, basándose en diferentes estudios de casos prácticos. Por todo ello, los autores encuentran en España un centro de estudio fascinante debido, básicamente, a la cantidad de experimentos políticos puestos en marcha en los últimos años en este país. (shrink)

Philosophy &Public Affairs, Volume 47, Issue 1, Page 72-103, Winter 2019.

This distinction has sometimes been read as purely epistemic, resting not on things, but on our knowledge of them: there is one world, not two, though it may be apprehended in two ways. But this view is patently at odds with the text. Knowledge and opinion are δυνάμεις, "faculties," to be distinguished and defined by their objects, no less than by the state of mind they produce, and Plato clearly states that the fallibility and unclearness of opinion is rooted in (...) the relative unreality of opinables. (shrink)

European Journal of Philosophy, EarlyView.

This essay explores the role of informal logicand its application in the context of currentdebates regarding evidence-based medicine. This aim is achieved through a discussion ofthe goals and objectives of evidence-basedmedicine and a review of the criticisms raisedagainst evidence-based medicine. Thecontributions to informal logic by StephenToulmin and Douglas Walton are explicated andtheir relevance for evidence-based medicine isdiscussed in relation to a common clinicalscenario: hypertension management. This essayconcludes with a discussion on the relationshipbetween clinical reasoning, rationality, andevidence. It is argued that (...) informal logic hasthe virtue of bringing explicitness to the roleof evidence in clinical reasoning, and bringssensitivity to understanding the role ofdialogical context in the need for evidence inclinical decision making. (shrink)

In this paper I consider how thinking emerges out of human infants' relatedness towards the personal and non-personal world. I highlight the contrast between cognitive aspects and cognitive components of psychological functioning, and propose that even when thinking has become a partly separable component of the mind, affective and conative aspects inhere in its nature. I provide illustrative evidence from recent research on the developmental psychopathology of autism. In failing to adopt a developmental perspective, contemporary theorizing has displaced thinking from (...) where it is properly situated - intimately woven with feeling as well as action, and infused with qualities of interpersonal relatedness from which its structure is derived. (shrink)

The 1996 European Summer Meeting of the Association of Symbolic Logic was held held the University of the Basque Country, at Donostia (San Se bastian) Spain, on July 9-15, 1996. It was organised by the Institute for Logic, Cognition, Language and Information (ILCLI) and the Department of Logic and Philosophy of Sciences of the University of the Basque Coun try. It was supported by: the University of Pais Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unib ertsitatea, the Ministerio de Education y Ciencia (DGCYT), Hezkuntza Saila (...) (Eusko Jaurlaritza), Gipuzkoako Foru Aldundia, and Kuxta Fun dazioa. The main topics of the meeting were Model Theory, Proof Theory, Re cursion and Complexity Theory, Models of Arithmetic, Logic for Artifi cial Intelligence, Formal Semantics of Natural Language and Philosophy of Contemporary Logic. The Program Committee consisted of K. Ambos Spies (Heidelberg), J.L. Balcazar (Barcelona), J.E. Fenstad (Oslo), D. Israel (Stanford), H. Kamp (Stuttgart), R. Kaye (Birmingham), J.M. Larrazabal (San Sebastian), D. Lascar (Paris, chairman), A. Marcja (Firenze), G. Mints (Stanford), M. Otero (Madrid), S. Ronchi della Rocca (Torino), K. Segerberg (Uppsala) and L. Vega (Madrid). The organizing Committee consisted of X. Arrazola (San Sebastian), A. Arrieta (San Sebastian), R. Beneyeto (Valencia), B. Carrascal (San Se bastian), K. Korta (San Sebastian), J.M. Larrazabal (San Sebastian, chair man), J.C. Martinez (Barcelona), J.M. Mendez (Salamanca), F. Migura (Victoria) and J. Perez (Victoria). (shrink)

Antecedentes. En el 2007 se legalizó el aborto en la Ciudad de México, acusando una elevada mortalidad materna por aborto.Objetivo. Analizar los datos generales de la mortalidad materna y por aborto en el país y en la capital.Metodología. Estudio retrospectivo, con datos obtenidos del INEGI. Cálculo de la razón de mortalidad materna general y por aborto. Análisis de correlación de Pearson y regresión lineal de los resultados. Análisis de tendencias de incremento y decremento anual. Desglose de muertes maternas.Resultado. Regresión lineal (...) sobre la RMM nacional (R² = 0.87) con tendencia a la baja; RMM por aborto nacional (R² = 0.49) con débil tendencia hacia la baja; RMM por aborto en la Ciudad de México (R² = 0.001) no muestra una tendencia hacia la baja.Conclusión. La despenalización del aborto en la Ciudad de México no mostró tener un impacto en la reducción de muertes maternas por aborto. El aborto provocado ocupa el 12° lugar de las muertes maternas en México. (shrink)

In his article ‘A Cavalry Unit in the Army of Antigonus Monophthalmus: Asthippoi’, N. G. L. Hammond argues that the reading of the manuscript R at Diodorus 19. 29. 2 should be retained and that we should read ⋯π⋯ π⋯σι δ⋯ το⋯ς τε ⋯σθ⋯ππους ⋯νομαζομ⋯νους κα⋯ τοὺς ⋯κ τ⋯ν ἄνω κατοικο⋯ντων ⋯κτακοσιο⋯ς. The readings of F and its copy X, ⋯νθ⋯ππους, and the commonly accepted conjecture of Wesseling ⋯μɸ⋯ππους, should both be abandoned. Hammond's arguments for retaining this reading are that (...) between the variant readings of R and F, R ‘is the more often correct’ ; ⋯σθ⋯ππους, the reading of R, is preferable to F's ⋯νθ⋯ππους on the principle of ‘lectio difficilior’; the ‘difficulty’ of his lectio difficilior is made less by the arguments presented by A. B. Bosworth, 245 ff.), for the restoration at several places in the text of Arrian's Anabasis the word ⋯σθ⋯ταιροι, in place of the editorial emendation of πεζ⋯ταιροι. ‘For just as asthetairoi meant an élite group of Macedonian infantrymen,’ says Hammond, ‘so asthippoi should mean an élite group of Macedonian cavalrymen.’ He then proceeds to examine the passage and its context in an attempt to find confirmation of this proposition and comes to the conclusion that Diodorus' text says that there were 800 cavalrymen, broken into two groups, the asthippoi and ‘the men from the up-country settlers’; these, though having different names, had a close relationship to each other, as is shown by their being brigaded together. Following his derivation of asthetairoi as meaning ‘townsmen-companions’, i.e. companions recruited from the towns of Upper Macedonia, he argues that asthippoi were cavalry recruited from the towns of Upper Macedonia and that τοὺς ⋯κ τ⋯ν ἄνω κατοικο⋯ντων means ‘the sons of settlers in up-country Macedonia’. These 800, says Hammond, were both among Antigonus' best troops and ‘were Macedonians from Europe’. We thus appear, on Hammond's interpretation, to have here a group of 800 Macedonian élite cavalrymen, all of whom were recruited in Upper Macedonia's townships, but of whom some were chosen to be the cavalry-equivalent of the élite ‘townsmen-companions’ by their title of ‘townsmen-cavalry’, whilst the others, similarly recruited – but perhaps of a younger generation? – had no particular distinguishing title beyond ‘sons of settlers in up-country Macedonia’.Now, while it would be exciting to be able to add another one, possibly two Macedonian cavalry units to the Macedonian army of Philip, Alexander and the Successors, there are several aspects of Hammond's arguments that, it seems to me, are less than convincing. Thus, whilst it seems beyond reasonable doubt that ⋯σθ⋯ταιροι should be retained in the text of Arrian, appearing, as it does, six times, this is not an argument that ⋯σθ⋯ππους should be read in Diodorus' text. Both it and F's reading of ⋯νθ⋯ππους are hapax legomena and it is possible that both readings are wrong. But even if we retain ⋯σθ⋯ππους as the correct reading, Hammond's explanation of its meaning is open to objection on several counts. (shrink)

Given a structure for a first-order language L, two objects of its domain can be indiscernible relative to the properties expressible in L, without using the equality symbol, and without actually being the same. It is this relation that interests us in this paper. It is called Leibniz equality. In the paper we study systematically the problem of its definibility mainly for classes of structures that are the models of some equality-free universal Horn class in an infinitary language Lκκ, where (...) κ is an infinite regular cardinal. (shrink)

We generalize two well-known model-theoretic characterization theorems from propositional modal logic to first-order modal logic. We first study FML-definable frames and give a version of the Goldblatt–Thomason theorem for this logic. The advantage of this result, compared with the original Goldblatt–Thomason theorem, is that it does not need the condition of ultrafilter reflection and uses only closure under bounded morphic images, generated subframes and disjoint unions. We then investigate Lindström type theorems for first-order modal logic. We show that FML has (...) the maximal expressive power among the logics extending FML which satisfy compactness, bisimulation invariance and the Tarski union property. (shrink)

In this paper, I use insights from post-structuralist anarchism to consider the relationship between a sense of the future, or “futurity”, and the notion of utopia for anarchist movements. At issue is whether anarchism requires a vision or sense of the future at all and, if so, whether that futurity should be utopian. Drawing from the post-structuralist anarchism of Todd May, Saul Newman, and Lewis Call, I consider the problems with utopia, as well as the potential irrelevance or impossibility of (...) even thinking the future. I then argue for the necessity of both and contend that post-structuralist anarchism does not preclude either futurity or provisional forms of utopia. I conclude by sketching the outlines of a utopia that would be acceptably post-structuralist and acceptably anarchist. (shrink)

As far as the history of logic is concerned, late nineteenth and twentieth century Central and Eastern Europe seem oddly obscure. The work of several influential individuals or national schools is...

Volume 28, Issue 1, January 2020, Page 202-204.

On May 24, 1995, the American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs issued a rather controversial opinion that it is ethically permissible to use anencephalic infants as living organ donors. Approximately 1,000 to 2,000 infants are born each year in the United States with anencephaly, a congenital birth defect whereby the infant has no forebrain and cerebrum. Without higher brain functions, the infants can never experience consciousness, thoughts, emotions, or pain. Fewer than half survive more than a day, (...) and more than 90 percent die within one week. However, by the time brain death occurs in anencephalic infants, their organs are no longer suitable for donor purposes because they have deteriorated beyond use.In 1988, the AMA Council declared that it is ethical to use the infants as organ donors only after they have died. Now the Council has revised that opinion, and it proposes to allow removal of organs before death, as long as the parents consent and two doctors concur in the diagnosis of anencephaly. (shrink)